Toys User Guide
Toys is a configurable command line tool. Write commands in Ruby using a simple DSL, and Toys will provide the command line executable and take care of all the details such as argument parsing, online help, and error reporting.
Toys is designed for software developers, IT professionals, and other power users who want to write and organize scripts to automate their workflows. It can also be used as a Rake replacement, providing a more natural command line interface for your project's build tasks.
Unlike most command line frameworks, Toys is not primarily designed to help
you build and ship a custom command line executable written in Ruby. Rather, it
provides a single executable called toys
. You define the commands recognized
by the Toys executable by writing configuration files. (You can, however, build
your own custom command line executable using the related toys-core
library.)
If this is your first time using Toys, we recommend starting with the README, which includes a tutorial that introduces how to install Toys, write and execute tools, and even use Toys to replace Rake. The tutorial will likely give you enough information to start using Toys effectively.
This user's guide is also structured like an extended tutorial, but it is much longer and covers all the features of Toys in much more depth. Read it when you're ready to unlock all the capabilities of Toys to create sophisticated command line tools.
Conceptual overview
Toys is a command line framework. It provides an executable called toys
with basic functions such as argument parsing and online help. You provide the
actual behavior of the Toys executable by writing Toys files.
Toys is a multi-command executable. You may define any number of commands,
called tools, which can be invoked by passing the tool name as an argument
to the toys
executable. Tools are arranged in a hierarchy; you may define
namespaces that have subtools.
Tools may recognize command line arguments in the form of flags and positional arguments. Flags can optionally take values, while positional arguments may be required or optional. Flags may be organized into flag groups which support different kinds of constraints on which flags are required.
The configuration of a tool may include descriptions, for the tool itself, and for each command line argument. These descriptions are displayed in the tool's online help screen. Descriptions come in long and short forms, which appear in different styles of help.
Toys searches for tools in specifically-named Toys files and Toys directories. It searches for these in the current directory, in its ancestors, and in the Toys search path.
Toys provides various features to help you write tools. This includes providing a logger for each tool, mixins that provide common functions a tool can call (such as to control subprocesses and style output), and templates which are prefabricated tools that you can configure for your needs.
Finally, Toys provides useful built-in behavior, including automatically providing flags to display help screens and set verbosity. It also includes a built-in namespace of system tools that let you inspect and configure the Toys system itself.
The Toys command line
In this section, you will learn how Toys parses its command line, identifies a tool to run, and interprets flags and other command line arguments.
The general form of the toys
command line is:
toys [TOOL...] [FLAGS...] [ARGS...]
Tools
The tool name consists of all the command line arguments until the first argument that begins with a hyphen (which is interpreted as a flag), until no tool with that name exists (in which case the argument is treated as the first positional argument), or until there are no more arguments.
For example, in the following command:
|----TOOL----|
$ toys system version
The tool name is system version
. Notice that the tool name may have multiple
words. Tools are arranged hierarchically. In this case, system
is a
namespace for tools related to the Toys system, and version
is one of its
subtools. It prints the current Toys version.
The words in a tool name can be delimited with spaces as shown above, or
alternately periods or colons. The following commands also invoke the tool
system version
:
$ toys system.version
$ toys system:version
In the following command:
|TOOL| |ARG|
$ toys system frodo
There is no subtool frodo
under the system
namespace, so Toys works
backward until it finds an existing tool. In this case, the system
namespace
itself does exist, so Toys runs it as the tool, and passes it frodo
as an
argument.
Namespaces such as system
are themselves tools and can be executed like any
other tool. In the above case, it takes the argument frodo
, determines it has
no subtool of that name, and prints an error message. More commonly, though,
you might execute a namespace without arguments:
$ toys system
This displays the online help screen for the system
namespace, which
includes a list of all its subtools and what they do.
It is also legitimate for the tool name to be empty. This invokes the root tool, the toplevel namespace:
$ toys
Like any namespace, invoking the root tool displays its help screen, including showing the list of all its subtools.
One last example:
$ toys frodo
If there is no tool called frodo
in the toplevel namespace, then once again,
frodo
is interpreted as an argument to the root tool. The root tool responds
by printing an error message that the frodo
tool does not exist.
Flags
Flags are generally arguments that begin with a hyphen, and are used to set options for a tool.
Each tool recognizes a specific set of flags. If you pass an unknown flag to a tool, the tool will generally display an error message.
Toys follows the typical unix conventions for flags, specifically those covered by Ruby's OptionParser library. You can provide short (single-character) flags with a single hyphen, or long flags with a double hyphen. Some flags can also take values. Following are a few examples.
Here we pass a single short flag (for verbose output).
$ toys system -v
Here we pass multiple long flags (for verbose output and recursive subtool search).
$ toys system --verbose --recursive
You can combine short flags. The following passes both the -v
and -r
flags
(i.e. it has the same effect as the previous example.)
$ toys system -vr
Long flags can be abbreviated, as long as the abbreviation is not ambiguous.
For example, there is only one flag (--recursive
) beginning with the string
--rec
, so you can use the shortened form.
$ toys --rec
However, there are two flags (--version
and --verbose
) beginning with
--ver
, so it cannot be used as an abbreviation. This will cause an error:
$ toys --ver
Some flags take values. The root tool supports the --search
flag to search
for tools that have the given keyword.
$ toys --search=build
$ toys --search build
The short form of the search flag -s
also takes a value.
$ toys -s build
$ toys -sbuild
If a double hyphen --
appears by itself in the arguments, it disables flag
parsing from that point. Any further arguments are treated as positional
arguments, even if they begin with hyphens. For example:
|--FLAG--| |---ARG---|
$ toys --verbose -- --recursive
That will cause --recursive
to be treated as a positional argument. (In this
case, as we saw earlier, the root tool will respond by printing an error
message that no tool named --recursive
exists.)
Note that a single hyphen by itself -
is not considered a flag, nor does it
disable flag parsing. It is treated as a normal positional argument.
Standard flags
For the most part, each tool specifies which flags and arguments it recognizes. However, Toys adds a few standard flags globally to every tool. (It is possible for individual tools to override these flags, but most tools should support them.) These standard flags include:
-
--help
(also-?
) which displays the full help screen for the tool. -
--usage
which displays a shorter usage screen for the tool. -
--verbose
(also-v
) which increases the verbosity. This affects the tool's logging display, increasing the number of log levels shown. This flag may be issued multiple times. -
--quiet
(also-q
) which decreases the verbosity. This affects the tool's logging display, decreasing the number of log levels shown. This flag may also be issued multiple times.
Namespace tools (tools that have subtools but no explicit functionality of
their own) always behave as though --help
is invoked. (They do recognize the
flag, but it has no additional effect.) Namespaces also support the following
additional flags:
-
--all
which displays all subtools, including hidden subtools and namespaces. -
--no-recursive
which displays only immediate subtools, instead of the default behavior of showing all subtools recursively. -
--search=TERM
which displays only subtools whose name or description contain the specified search term. -
--tools
which displays just the list of subtools rather than the entire help screen.
Finally, the root tool also supports:
-
--version
which displays the current Toys version.
Positional arguments
Any arguments not recognized as flags or flag arguments, are interpreted as positional arguments. Positional arguments are recognized in order and may be required or optional.
Each tool recognizes a specific set of positional arguments. If you do not pass a value for a required argument, or you pass too many arguments, the tool will generally display an error message.
For example, the built-in do
tool runs multiple tools in sequence. It
recognizes any number of positional arguments. Those arguments specify which
tools to run and what arguments to pass to them. If, for example, you had a
build
tool and a test
tool, you could run them in sequence with:
|---ARGS---|
$ toys do build , test
The three arguments build
and ,
and test
are positional arguments to the
do
tool. (The do
tool uses ,
to delimit the tools that it should run.)
Most tools allow flags and positional arguments to be interspersed. A flag will be recognized even if it appears after some of the positional arguments.
However, this approach would not work for the do
tool because its common case
is to pass flags down to the steps it runs. (That is, do
wants most arguments
to be treated as positional even if they look like flags.) So do
stops
recognizing flags once it encounters its first positional argument. That is,
you could do this:
|------------ARGS-----------|
$ toys do build --staging , test --help
Each tool can choose which behavior it will support, whether or not to enforce flags before positional args.
You can also, of course, stop recognizing flags on the command line by passing
--
as an argument.
Tab completion
If you are using the Bash shell, Toys provides custom tab completion. See this section for instructions on installing tab completion.
Toys will complete tool and subtool names, flags, values passed to flags, and positional argument values, and it will respect the current context. For example, if you type:
$ toys <TAB><TAB>
The tab completion will show you a list of reasonable things that could appear
next, including the defined tool names (such as system
and do
) as well as
all the flags supported by the root tool (such as --help
and -v
). And of
course, if you start typing something, tab completion will limit the display to
matching completions. The following displays only flags, i.e. completions that
begin with a hyphen:
$ toys -<TAB><TAB>
And if you type the following:
$ toys sys<TAB>
It is likely only one tool name starts with sys
, so completion will
automatically type the rest of system
for you.
The tab completion for Toys also supports values passed to flags and positional args. As we shall see later, when you define a flag or a positional argument, you can specify how completions are computed.
Note: Because of the highly dynamic nature of Toys in which tools, flags, and arguments can be highly customized, the completion implementation actually requires executing Toys so it can analyze your tool configurations. This unfortunately means paying some upfront latency as the Ruby interpreter starts up. So you can expect a slight pause when evaluating tab completion for Toys, at least in comparison with most other tab completions.
Defining tools
So far we've been experimenting only with the built-in tools provided by Toys. In this section, you will learn how to define tools by writing a Toys file. We will cover how to write tools, including specifying the functionality of the tool, the flags and arguments it takes, and how its description appears in the help screen.
Basic Toys syntax
A file named .toys.rb
(note the leading period) in the current working
directory is called a Toys file. It defines tools available in that
directory and its subdirectories.
The format of a Toys file is a Ruby DSL that includes directives, methods, and nested blocks. The actual DSL is specified in the Toys::DSL::Tool class.
To create a tool, write a tool
block, giving the tool a name. Within the
block, use directives to set the properties of the tool, including descriptions
and the flags and arguments recognized by the tool. The actual functionality of
the tool is set by defining a run
method.
Let's start with an example:
tool "greet" do
desc "Print a friendly greeting."
long_desc "Prints a friendly greeting. You may customize whom to" \
" greet, and how friendly it should be.",
"",
"Example:",
[" toys greet --shout ruby"]
optional_arg :whom, default: "world", desc: "Whom to greet."
flag :shout, "-s", "--shout", desc: "Greet loudly."
def run
greeting = "Hello, #{whom}!"
greeting = greeting.upcase if shout
puts greeting
end
end
Its results should be mostly self-evident. But let's unpack a few details.
Tool descriptions
Each tool may have a short description and/or a long description. The short description is a generally a single string that is displayed with the tool name, at the top of its help page or in a subtool list. The long description generally includes multiple strings, which are displayed in multiple lines in the "description" section of the tool's help page. Long descriptions may include blank lines to separate paragraphs visually.
By default, each description string/line is word-wrapped when displayed. In the long description example above, the first line is a bit longer than 80 characters, and may be word-wrapped if displayed on an 80-character terminal.
If you need to control the wrapping behavior, pass an array of strings for that line. Each array element will be considered a unit for wrapping purposes, and will not be split. The example command in the long description above illustrates how to prevent a line from being word-wrapped. This is also a useful technique for preserving spaces and indentation.
For more details, see the reference documentation for Toys::DSL::Tool#desc and Toys::DSL::Tool#long_desc.
Positional arguments
Tools may recognize any number of positional arguments. Each argument must have a name, which is a key that the tool can use to obtain the argument's value at execution time. Arguments may also have various properties controlling how values are validated and expressed.
The above example uses the directive
Toys::DSL::Tool#optional_arg
to declare an optional argument named :whom
. If the argument is provided
on the command line e.g.
$ toys greet ruby
Hello, ruby!
Then the option :whom
is set to the string "ruby"
. Otherwise, if the
argument is omitted, e.g.
$ toys greet
Hello, world!
Then the option :whom
is set to the default value "world"
.
If the option name is a valid method name, Toys will provide a method that you
can use to retrieve the value. In the above example, we retrieve the value for
the option :whom
by calling the method whom
. If the option name cannot be
made into a method, you can retrieve the value by calling
Toys::Context#get.
An argument may also be required, which means it must be provided on the command line; otherwise the tool will report a usage error. You may declare a required argument using the directive Toys::DSL::Tool#required_arg.
Parsing required and optional arguments
When command line arguments are parsed, the required arguments are matched first, in order, followed by the optional arguments. For example:
tool "args-demo" do
optional_arg :arg2
required_arg :arg1
def run
puts "options data is #{.inspect}"
end
end
If a user runs
$ toys args-demo foo
Options data is {arg1: "foo", arg2: nil}
Then the required argument :arg1
will be set to "foo"
, and the optional
argument :arg2
will not be set (i.e. it will remain nil
).
If the user runs:
$ toys args-demo foo bar
Options data is {arg1: "foo", arg2: "bar"}
Then :arg1
is set to "foo"
, and :arg2
is set to "bar"
.
Running the following:
$ toys args-demo
Will produce a usage error, because no value is set for the required argument
:arg1
. Similarly, running:
$ toys args-demo foo bar baz
Will also produce an error, since the tool does not define an argument to
match "baz"
.
Optional arguments may declare a default value to be used if the argument is not provided on the command line. For example:
tool "args-demo" do
required_arg :arg1
optional_arg :arg2, default: "the-default"
def run
puts "options data is #{.inspect}"
end
end
Now running the following:
$ toys args-demo foo
Options data is {arg1: "foo", arg2: "the-default"}
Will set the required argument to "foo"
as usual, and the optional argument,
because it is not provided, will default to "the-default"
instead of nil
.
Remaining arguments
Normally, unmatched arguments will result in an error message. However, you can provide an "argument" to match all remaining unmatched arguments at the end, using the directive Toys::DSL::Tool#remaining_args. For example:
tool "args-demo" do
required_arg :arg1
optional_arg :arg2
remaining_args :arg3
def run
puts "Options data is #{.inspect}"
end
end
Now, we can see how the remaining arguments (if any) are collected by :arg3
:
$ toys args-demo foo bar baz qux
Options data is {arg1: "foo", arg2: "bar", arg3: ["baz", "qux"]}
$ toys args-demo foo
Options data is {arg1: "foo", arg2: nil, arg3: []}
Tools can include any number of required_arg
and optional_arg
directives,
declaring any number of required and optional arguments. But tools can have at
most only one remaining_args
directive.
Descriptions and the args DSL
Positional arguments may also have short and long descriptions, which are
displayed in online help. Set descriptions via the desc:
and long_desc:
arguments to the argument directive. The desc:
argument takes a single string
description, while the long_desc:
argument takes an array of strings. Here is
an example:
required_arg :arg,
desc: "This is a short description for the arg",
long_desc: ["Long descriptions may have multiple lines.",
"This is the second line."]
See the above section on Descriptions for more information on how descriptions are rendered and word wrapped.
Because long descriptions may be unwieldly to write as a hash argument in this way, Toys provides an alternate syntax for defining arguments using a block.
required_arg :arg do
desc "This is a short description for the arg"
long_desc "Long desc can be set as multiple lines together,",
"like this second line."
long_desc "Or you can call long_desc again to add more lines."
end
For detailed info on configuring an argument using a block, see the Toys::DSL::PositionalArg class.
Argument acceptors
Finally, positional arguments may use acceptors to define how to validate arguments and convert them to Ruby objects for your tool to consume. By default, Toys will accept any argument string, and expose it to your tool as a raw string. However, you may provide an acceptor to change this behavior.
Acceptors are part of the OptionParser interface, and are described under the
type coercion
section. For example, you can provide the Integer
class as an acceptor, which
will validate that the argument is a well-formed integer, and convert it to an
integer during parsing:
tool "acceptor-demo" do
required_arg :age, accept: Integer
def run
puts "Next year I will be #{age + 1}" # Age is an integer
end
end
If you pass a non-integer for this argument, Toys will report a usage error.
You may use any of the ready-to-use coercion types provided by OptionParser, including the special types such as OptionParser::DecimalInteger and OptionParser::OctalInteger.
You may also create custom acceptors. See the section below on Custom Acceptors for more information.
Argument completions
Shell tab completion supports positional arguments, and arguments can be configured to present a set of completion candidates for themselves.
By default, an argument does not provide any completions for itself. To change
that, set the completion
option. Currently there are three ways to set the
completion:
- Provide a static set of possible values, as an array of strings.
- Specify that values should be paths in the file system by setting the
symbol
:file_system
. - Provide a
Proc
that returns possible values.
The following are two example arguments, one that supports a static set of completions and the other that supports file paths.
required_arg :language, complete: ["ruby", "elixir", "rust"]
required_arg :path, complete: :file_system
Completions are somewhat related to acceptors, and it is a common pattern to set both in concert. But they perform distinct functions. Acceptors affect argument parsing, whereas completions affect tab completion in the shell.
Flags
Tools may also recognize flags on the command line. In our "greet" example,
we declared a flag named :shout
:
flag :shout, "-s", "--shout", desc: "Greet loudly."
Like a positional argument, a flag sets an option based on the command line
arguments passed to the tool. In the case above, the :shout
option is set to
true
if either -s
or --shout
is provided on the command line; otherwise
it remains falsy. The two flags -s
and --shout
are effectively synonyms and
have the same effect. A flag declaration may include any number of synonyms.
As with arguments, Toys will provide a method that you can call to retrieve the
option value set by a flag. In this case, a method called shout
will be
available, and will return either true or false. If the option name cannot be
made into a method, you can retrieve the value by calling
Toys::Context#get.
Flag types
Toys recognizes the same syntax used by the standard OptionParser library. This means you can also declare a flag that can be set either to true or false:
flag :shout, "--[no-]shout"
You can declare that a short or long flag takes a value:
flag :whom, "--whom=VALUE"
flag :whom, "--whom VALUE"
flag :whom, "-wVALUE"
flag :whom, "-w VALUE"
You can also declare the value to be optional:
flag :whom, "--whom[=VALUE]"
flag :whom, "--whom [VALUE]"
flag :whom, "-w[VALUE]"
flag :whom, "-w [VALUE]"
Note that if you define multiple flags together, they will all be coerced to the same "type". That is, if one takes a value, they all will implicitly take a value. (This is the same behavior as OptionParser.) In this example:
flag :whom, "-w", "--whom=VALUE"
The -w
flag will also implicitly take a value, because it is defined as a
synonym of another flag that takes a value.
Note also that Toys will raise an error if those flags are incompatible. For example:
flag :whom, "-w[VALUE]", "--whom=VALUE"
Raises an error because one flag's value is optional while the other is required. (Again, this is consistent with OptionParser's behavior.)
Inferred flags
If you do not provide any actual flags, Toys will attempt to infer one from the name of the option. A one-character name will yield a short flag, and a longer name a long flag. Hence, the following two definitions are equivalent:
flag :shout
flag :shout, "--shout"
And the following two are equivalent:
flag :S
flag :S, "-S"
Inferred flags will convert underscores to hyphens. So the following two definitions are also equivalent:
flag :call_out
flag :call_out, "--call-out"
Handling optional values
There are some subtleties in how the Ruby OptionParser library treats flags with optional values. Although Toys does not use OptionParser interally, it does, for the most part, replicate OptionParser's behavior. It is thus important to understand that behavior if you use optional values.
First, if a flag has an optional value that is not provided on the command
line, then the option is set to true
, as if it were a normal boolean flag
that didn't take a value. Consider this example:
tool "flags-demo" do
flag :output, "--output [DIRECTORY]", default: "."
def run
puts "output is #{output.inspect}"
end
end
If a user executes this without passing the --output
flag, the default will
be printed as we expect.
$ toys flags-demo
output is "."
If a user executes this and provides a value for --output
, it will show up:
$ toys flags-demo --output /etc
output is "/etc"
If a user provides --output
but omits the value, it displays true
:
$ toys flags-demo --output
output is true
Second, if the following argument looks like a flag (i.e. it begins with a
hyphen), it is not treated as an optional value. In this example, the argument
--verbose
is not treated as the value of --output
but as a separate flag.
(If --output
had a required value, then --verbose
would have been treated
as the value.)
$ toys flags-demo --output --verbose
output is true
Finally, there is an important difference between the syntax
"--output [DIRECTORY]"
and "--output=[DIRECTORY]"
. In the former case, the
following argument (as long as it doesn't look like a flag) will be treated as
the value. In the latter case, however, the following argument is never
treated as the value. In that latter case, you must use the equals sign
syntax to provide a value.
To illustrate, consider two flags with optional values, one using space and the other using equals.
tool "flags-demo-space" do
flag :output, "--output [DIRECTORY]", default: "."
set_remaining_args :remaining
def run
puts "output is #{output.inspect}"
end
end
tool "flags-demo-equals" do
flag :output, "--output=[DIRECTORY]", default: "."
set_remaining_args :remaining
def run
puts "output is #{output.inspect}"
end
end
Here is the behavior:
$ toys flags-demo-space --output=/etc
output is "/etc"
$ toys flags-demo-space --output /etc
output is "/etc"
$ toys flags-demo-equals --output=/etc
output is "/etc"
$ toys flags-demo-equals --output /etc
output is true
Flag acceptors
Flags may use acceptors to define how to validate values and convert them to Ruby objects for your tool to consume. By default, Toys will accept a flag value string in any form, and expose it to your tool as a raw string. However, you may provide an acceptor to change this behavior.
Acceptors are part of the OptionParser interface, and are described under the
type coercion
section. For example, you can provide the Integer
class as an acceptor, which
will validate that the argument is a well-formed integer, and convert it to an
integer during parsing:
tool "flags-demo" do
flag :age, accept: Integer
def run
puts "Next year I will be #{age + 1}" # Age is an integer
end
end
If you pass a non-integer for this flag value, Toys will report a usage error.
You may use any of the ready-to-use coercion types provided by OptionParser, including the special types such as OptionParser::DecimalInteger and OptionParser::OctalInteger.
You may also create custom acceptors. See the section below on Custom Acceptors for more information.
Defaults and handlers
Flags are usually optional; a flag can appear in a command line zero, one, or any number of times.
If a flag is not passed in the command line arguments for a tool, by default
its corresponding option value will be nil
. You may change this by providing
a default value for a flag:
flag :age, accept: Integer, default: 21
If you pass a flag multiple times on the command line, by default the last appearance of the flag will take effect. That is, suppose you define this flag:
flag :shout, "--[no-]shout"
Now if you pass --shout --no-shout
, then the value of the :shout
option
will be false
, i.e. the last value set on the command line. This is because a
flag normally sets its option value, replacing any previously set value.
You can, however, change this behavior by providing a handler. A handler is a Ruby Proc that defines what a flag does to its option value. It takes two arguments, the new value given, and the previously set value (which might be the default value if this is the first appearance of the flag), and returns the new value that should be set.
Effectively, the default behavior (setting the value and ignoring the previous value) is equivalent to the following handler:
flag :shout, "--[no-]shout", handler: proc { | val, _prev| val }
Toys gives the default handler the special name :set
. So the above is also
equivalent to:
flag :shout, "--[no-]shout", handler: :set
The --verbose
flag, provided automatically by Toys for most tools, shows an
example of an alternate handler. Verbosity is represented by an integer value,
defaulting to 0. The --verbose
flag may appear any number of times, and
each appearance increases the verbosity. Its implementation is internal to
Toys, but looks something like this:
flag Toys::Context::Key::VERBOSITY, "-v", "--verbose",
default: 0,
handler: proc { |_val, prev| prev + 1 }
Similarly, the "--quiet" flag, which decreases the verbosity, is implemented like this:
flag Toys::Context::Key::VERBOSITY, "-q", "--quiet",
default: 0,
handler: proc { |_val, prev| prev - 1 }
Note that both flags affect the same option name, VERBOSITY
. The first
increments it each time it appears, and the second decrements it. A tool can
query this option and get an integer telling the requested verbosity level, as
you will see below.
Toys provides a few built-in handlers that can be specified by name. We already
discussed the default handler that can be specified by its name :set
or by
simply omitting the handler:
option. Another named handler is :push
. This
handler is intended for flags that take values and can be provided more than
once. The final value is then an array of values.
In the following example, an invocation can provide any number of --include
flags, and the :include
option will be set to an array of the given paths.
flag :include, "-I", "--include PATH", default: [], handler: :push
The :push
handler is equivalent to
proc { |val, array| array.nil? ? [val] : array << val }
.
Descriptions and the flags DSL
Flags may also have short and long descriptions, which are displayed in online
help. Set descriptions via the desc:
and long_desc:
arguments to the flag
directive. The desc:
argument takes a single string description, while the
long_desc:
argument takes an array of strings. Here is an example:
flag :my_flag, "--my-flag",
desc: "This is a short description for the arg",
long_desc: ["Long descriptions may have multiple lines.",
"This is the second line."]
See the above section on Descriptions for more information on how descriptions are rendered and word wrapped.
Because long descriptions may be unwieldly to write as a hash argument in this way, Toys provides an alternate syntax for defining flags using a block.
flag :my_flag do
flags "--my-flag"
desc "This is a short description for the flag"
long_desc "Long desc can be set as multiple lines together,",
"like this second line."
long_desc "Or you can call long_desc again to add more lines."
end
For detailed info on configuring an flag using a block, see the Toys::DSL::Flag class.
Flag completions
Shell tab completion supports flag values, and flags can be configured to present a set of completion candidates for themselves.
By default, a flag does not provide any completions for itself. To change that,
set the completion
option. Currently there are three ways to set the
completion:
- Provide a static set of possible values, as an array of strings.
- Specify that values should be paths in the file system by setting the
symbol
:file_system
. - Provide a
Proc
that returns possible values.
The following are two example flags, one that supports a static set of completions and the other that supports file paths.
flag :language, "--lang=VAL", complete_values: ["ruby", "elixir", "rust"]
flag :path, "--path=VAL", complete_values: :file_system
Completions are somewhat related to acceptors, and it is a common pattern to set both in concert. But they perform distinct functions. Acceptors affect option parsing, whereas completions affect tab completion in the shell.
Flag groups
Flags may be organized into groups. This serves two functions:
- Grouping related flags in the help and usage screens
- Implementing required flags and other constraints
To create a simple flag group, use the flag_group
directive, and provide a
block that defines the group's flags. You may also provide a group description
that appears in the help screen.
flag_group desc: "Debug flags" do
flag :debug, "-D", desc: "Enable debugger"
flag :warnings, "-W[VAL]", desc: "Enable warnings"
end
Flag groups may have a "type" that specifies constraints on the flags contained
in the group. Flags in a simple group like the above are ordinary optional
flags. However, you may specify that flags in the group are required using the
all_required
directive:
all_required desc: "Login flags (all required)" do
flag :username, "--username=VAL", desc: "Set the username (required)"
flag :password, "--password=VAL", desc: "Set the password (required)"
end
If the tool is invoked without providing each of these required flags, it will display an option parsing error.
The all_required
directive is actually just shorthand for passing
type: :required
to the flag_group
directive. So the above is the same as:
flag_group type: :required, desc: "Login flags (all required)" do
flag :username, "--username=VAL", desc: "Set the username (required)"
flag :password, "--password=VAL", desc: "Set the password (required)"
end
The following are the supported types of flag groups:
- The
:required
type, which you can create using the directiveall_required
. All flags from the group are required and must be provided on the command line to avoid an error. - The
:exactly_one
type, which you can create using the directiveexactly_one_required
. Exactly one, and no more than one, flag from the group must be provided on the command line to avoid an error. - The
:at_most_one
type, which you can create using the directiveat_most_one_required
. At most one flag from the group must be provided on the command line to avoid an error. - The
:at_least_one
type, which you can create using the directiveat_least_one_required
. At least one flag from the group must be provided on the command line to avoid an error. - The
:optional
type is the default created using the directiveflag_group
when no type is specified. Flags in the group are ordinary optional flags.
Flag group types are useful for a variety of tools. For example, suppose you are writing a tool that deploys an app to one of several different kinds of targets---say, a server, a VM, or a container. You could provide this configuration for your tool with a flag group:
tool "deploy" do
exactly_one_required desc: "Deployment targets" do
flag :server, "--server=IP_ADDR"
flag :vm, "--vm=VM_ID"
flag :container, "--container=CONTAINER_ID"
end
def run
# Now exactly one of server, vm, or container will be set. The other
# two options will be their default value, nil.
end
end
Tool execution basics
When you run a tool from the command line, Toys will build the tool based on
its definition in a Toys file, and then it will attempt to execute it by
calling the run
method. Normally, you should define this method in each of
your tools.
Note: If you do not define the run
method for a tool, Toys provides a default
implementation that displays the tool's help screen. This is typically used for
namespaces, as we shall see below. Most tools,
however, should define run
.
Let's revisit the "greet" example we covered earlier.
tool "greet" do
optional_arg :whom, default: "world"
flag :shout, "-s", "--shout"
def run
greeting = "Hello, #{whom}!"
greeting = greeting.upcase if shout
puts greeting
end
end
Note that you can produce output or interact with the console using the normal
Ruby $stdout
, $stderr
, and $stdin
streams.
Note also how the run
method can access values that were assigned by flags or
positional arguments by just calling a method with that flag or argument name.
When you declare a flag or argument, if the option name is a symbol that is a
valid Ruby method name, Toys will provide a method that you can call to get the
value. In the above example, whom
and shout
are such methods.
If you create a flag or argument whose option name is not a symbol or is not a valid method name, you can still get the value by calling the Toys::Context#get method. For example:
tool "greet" do
# The name "whom-to-greet" is not a valid method name.
optional_arg "whom-to-greet", default: "world"
flag :shout, "-s", "--shout"
def run
# We can access the "whom-to-greet" option using the "get" method.
greeting = "Hello, #{get('whom-to-greet')}!"
greeting = greeting.upcase if shout
puts greeting
end
end
If a tool's run
method finishes normally, Toys will exit with a result code
of 0, indicating success. You may exit immediately and/or provide a nonzero
result by calling the
Toys::Context#exit
method:
def run
puts "Exiting with an error..."
exit(1)
puts "Will never get here."
end
If your run
method raises an exception, Toys will display the exception and
exit with a nonzero code.
Finally, you may also define additional methods within the tool. These are
available to be called by your run
method, and can be used to decompose your
tool implementation. Indeed, a tool is actually a class under the hood, and
you can define methods as with any other class. Here's a contrived example:
tool "greet-many" do
# Support any number of arguments on the command line
remaining_args :whom, default: ["world"]
flag :shout, "-s", "--shout"
# You can define helper methods like this.
def greet(name)
greeting = "Hello, #{name}!"
greeting = greeting.upcase if shout
puts greeting
end
def run
whom.each do |name|
greet(name)
end
end
end
This should be enough to get you started implementing tools. A variety of additional features are available for your tool implementation and will be discussed further below. But first we will cover a few important topics.
Namespaces and subtools
Like many command line frameworks, Toys supports subtools. You may, for example create a tool called "test" that runs your tests for a particular project, but you might also want "test unit" and "test integration" tools to run specific subsets of the test suite. One way to do this, of course, is for the "test" tool to parse "unit" or "integration" as arguments. However, it's often easier to define them as separate tools, subtools of "test".
To define a subtool, create nested tool
directives. Here's a simple example:
tool "test" do
tool "unit" do
def run
puts "run unit tests here..."
end
end
tool "integration" do
def run
puts "run integration tests here..."
end
end
end
You can now invoke them like this:
$ toys test unit
run unit tests here...
$ toys test integration
run integration tests here...
Notice in this case, the parent "test" tool itself has no run
method. This is
a common pattern: "test" is just a "container" for tools, a way of organizing
your tools. In Toys terminology, it is called a namespace. But it is still
a tool, and it can still be run:
$ toys test
As discussed earlier, Toys provides a default implementation that displays the help screen, which includes a list of the subtools and their descriptions.
As another example, the "root" tool is also normally a namespace. If you just run Toys with no arguments:
$ toys
The root tool will display the overall help screen for Toys.
Although it is a less common pattern, it is possible for a tool that has
subtools to have its own run
method:
tool "test" do
def run
puts "run all tests here..."
end
tool "unit" do
def run
puts "run only unit tests here..."
end
end
tool "integration" do
def run
puts "run only integration tests here..."
end
end
end
Now running toys test
will run its own implementation.
(Yes, it is even possible to write a run
method for the root tool. I don't
recommend doing so, because then you lose the root tool's useful default
implementation that lists all your tools.)
Toys allows subtools to be nested arbitrarily deep. In practice, however, more than two or three levels of hierarchy can be confusing to use.
Understanding Toys files
Toys commands are defined in Toys files. We covered the basic syntax for these files in the above section on defining tools. In this section, we will take a deeper look at what you can do with Toys files.
Toys directories
So far we have been defining tools by writing a Toys file named .toys.rb
located in the current working directory. This works great if you have a small
number of fairly simple tools, but if you are defining many tools or tools with
long or complex implementations, you may find it better to split your tools in
separate files. You can have Toys load tools from multiple files by creating a
Toys directory.
A Toys directory is a directory called .toys
located in the current working
directory. (Again, note the leading period.) Ruby files inside a Toys directory
(or any of its subdirectories) are loaded when Toys looks for tool definitions.
Furthermore, the name of the Ruby file (and indeed its path relative to the
Toys directory) determines which tool it defines.
For example, one way to create a "greet" tool, as we saw before, is to write a
.toys.rb
file in the current directory, and populate it like this:
tool "greet" do
optional_arg :whom, default: "world"
def run
puts "Hello, #{whom}"
end
end
You could also create the same tool by creating a .toys
directory, and then
creating a file greet.rb
inside that directory.
(current directory)
|
+- .toys/
|
+- greet.rb
The contents of greet.rb
would be:
optional_arg :whom, default: "world"
def run
puts "Hello, #{whom}"
end
Notice that we did not use a tool "greet"
block here. That is because the
name of the file greet.rb
already provides a naming context: Toys already
knows that we are defining a "greet" tool.
If you do include a tool
block inside the greet.rb
file, it will create a
subtool of greet
. In other words, the path to the Ruby file defines a
"starting point" for the names of tools defined in that file.
If you create subdirectories inside a Toys directory, their names also
contribute to the namespace of created tools. For example, if you create a
directory .toys/test
and a file unit.rb
under that directory, it will
create the tool test unit
.
(current directory)
|
+- .toys/
|
+- greet.rb <-- defines "greet" (and subtools)
|
+- test/
|
+- unit.rb <-- defines "test unit" (and its subtools)
Once again, test unit
is the "starting point" for tools defined in the
.toys/test/unit.rb
file. Declarations and methods at the top level of that
file will define the test unit
tool. Any tool
blocks you add to that file
will define subtools of test unit
.
Index files
The file name .toys.rb
can also be used inside Toys directories and
subdirectories. Such files are called index files, and they create tools
with the directory as the "starting point" namespace. For example, if you
create an index file directly underneath a .toys
directory, it will define
top level tools (just like a .toys.rb
file in the current directory.) An
index file located inside .toys/test
will define tools with test
as the
"starting point" namespace.
(current directory)
|
+- .toys/
|
+- .toys.rb <-- index file, defines tools at the top level
|
+- greet.rb <-- defines "greet" (and subtools)
|
+- test/
|
+- .toys.rb <-- index file, defines "test" (and its subtools)
|
+- unit.rb <-- defines "test unit" (and its subtools)
Index files give you some flexibility for organizing your tools. For example,
if you have a number of subtools of test
, including a lot of small tools and
one big complex subtool called unit
, you might define all the simple tools in
the index file .toys/test/.toys.rb
, while defining the large test unit
tool
in the separate file .toys/test/unit.rb
.
Toys also loads index files first before other files in the directory. This means they are convenient places to define shared code that can be used by all the subtools defined in that directory, as we shall see later in the section on sharing code.
The Toys search path
So far we have seen how to define tools by writing a .toys.rb
file in the
current directory, or by writing files inside a .toys
directory in the
current directory. These tools are "scoped" to the current directory. If you
move to a different directory, they may not be available.
When Toys runs, it looks for tools in a search path. Specifically:
- It looks for a
.toys.rb
file and/or a.toys
directory in the current working directory. - It does the same in the parent directory of the current directory, and then its parent, and so on until it hits either the root of the file system or one of the global directories described in (3).
- It looks in a list of global directories, specified in the environment
variable
TOYS_PATH
. This variable can contain a colon-delimited list of directory paths. If the variable is not set, the current user's home directory, and the system configuration directory (/etc
on unix systems) are used by default. Toys does not search parents of global directories.
It uses the first implementation that it finds for the requested tool. For
example, if the tool greet
is defined in the .toys.rb
file in the current
working directory, and also in the .toys/greet.rb
file of the parent
directory, it will use the version in the current directory.
This means you could write a default implementation for a tool in your home
directory, and override it in the current directory. For example, you could
define a tool get-credentials
in your home directory that gets credentials
you need for most of your projects. But maybe on particular project requires
different credentials, so you could define a different get-credentials
tool
in that project's directory.
While a tool can be overridden when it is defined at different points in the
search path, it is not allowed to provide multiple definitions of a tool at
the same point in the search path. For example, if you define the greet
tool twice in the same .toys.rb
file, Toys will report an error. Perhaps less
obviously, if you define greet
in the .toys.rb
file in the current
directory, and you also define it in the .toys/greet.rb
file in the same
current directory, Toys will also report an error, since both are defined at
the same point (the current directory) in the search path.
Note that in the search path above, steps (1) and (2) are context-dependent. That is, they may be different depending on what directory you are in. However, step (3) is not context-dependent, and is searched regardless of where you are located. Tools defined here are global, available everywhere.
The execution environment
This section describes the context and resources available to your tool when it
is running; that is, what you can call from your tool's run
method.
Each tool is defined as a class that subclasses Toys::Context. The base class defines a number of methods, and provides access to a variety of data and objects relevant to your tool. We have already seen earlier how to use the Toys::Context#get method to retrieve option values, and how to use the Toys::Context#exit method to exit immediately and return an exit code. Now we will cover other resources available to your tool.
Built-in context
In addition to the options set by your tool's flags and command line arguments, a variety of other data and objects are also accessible using the Toys::Context#get method For example, you can get the full name of the tool being executed like this:
def run
puts "Current tool is #{get(TOOL_NAME)}"
end
The TOOL_NAME
constant above is a well-known key that corresponds to the full
name (as an array of strings) of the running tool. A variety of well-known keys
are defined in the
Toys::Context::Key module.
They include information about the current execution, such as the tool name and
the original command line arguments passed to it (before they were parsed).
They also include some internal Toys objects, which can be used to do things
like write to the logger or look up and call other tools.
Most of the important context also can be accessed from convenience methods.
For example, the TOOL_NAME
is also available from the
Toys::Context#tool_name method:
def run
puts "Current tool is #{tool_name}"
end
Let's take a look at a few things your tool can do with the objects you can access from built-in context.
Logging and verbosity
Toys provides a Logger (a simple instance of the Ruby standard library logger
that writes to standard error) for your tool to use to report status
information. You can access this logger via the LOGGER
context key, or the
Toys::Context#logger method.
For example:
def run
logger.warn "Danger Will Robinson!"
end
The current logger level is controlled by the verbosity. Verbosity is an
integer context value that you can retrieve using the VERBOSITY
context key
or the
Toys::Context#verbosity method.
The verbosity is set to 0 by default. This corresponds to a logger level of
WARN
. That is, warnings, errors, and fatals are displayed, while infos and
debugs are not. However, as we saw earlier, most tools
automatically respond to the --verbose
and --quiet
flags, (or -v
and
-q
), which increment and decrement the verbosity value, respectively. If you
run a tool with -v
, the verbosity is incremented to 1, and the logger level
is set to INFO
. If you set -q
, the verbosity is decremented to -1, and the
logger level is set to ERROR
. So by using the provided logger, a tool can
easily provide command line based control of the output verbosity.
Running tools from tools
A common operation a tool might want to do is "call" another tool. This can be
done via the CLI object, which you can retrieve using the CLI
key or the
Toys::Context#cli method.
These return the current instance of
Toys::CLI which is the
"main" interface to Toys. In particular, it provides the
Toys::CLI#run method
which can be used to call another tool:
def run
status = cli.run("greet", "rubyists", "-v")
exit(status) unless status.zero?
end
Pass the tool name and arguments as arguments to the run method. It will execute, and return a process status code (i.e. 0 for success, and nonzero for error). Make sure you handle the exit status. For example, in most cases, you should probably exit if the tool you are calling returns a nonzero code.
You may also use the exec
mixin described below to
run a tool in a separate process. This is particularly useful if you need to
capture or manipulate that tool's input or output stream.
Helper methods and mixins
The methods of Toys::Context are not the only methods available for your tool to call. We saw earlier that a tool can define additional methods that you can use as helpers.
You can also include mixins, which are modules that bring in a whole set of
helper methods. Include a mixin using the include
directive:
tool "greet" do
include :terminal
def run
puts "This is a bold line.", :bold
end
end
A mixin may be specified by providing a module itself, or by providing a
mixin name. In the above example, we used :terminal
, which is the name
of a built-in mixin that Toys provides. Among other things, it defines a
special puts
method that lets you include style information such as :bold
,
which affects the display on ANSI-capable terminals.
For details on the built-in mixins provided by Toys, see the modules under Toys::StandardMixins. We will look at a few examples of the use of these mixins below. Built-in mixins have names that are symbols.
You can also define your own mixins, as we will see in the upcoming section on defining mixins.
Executing subprocesses
Another common operation you might do in a tool is to execute other binaries.
For example, you might write a tool that shells out to scp
to copy files to
a remote server.
Ruby itself provides a few convenient methods for simple execution, such as the Kernel#system method. However, these typically provide limited ability to control or interact with subprocess streams, and you also need to remember to handle the exit status yourself. If you do want to exert more control over subprocesses, you can use Process.spawn, or a higher-level wrapper such as the open3 library.
Another alternative is to use the :exec
built-in mixin. This mixin provides
convenient methods for the common cases of executing subprocesses and capturing
their output, and a powerful block-based interface for controlling streams. The
exec mixin also lets you set a useful default option that causes the tool to
exit automatically if one of its subprocesses exits abnormally.
The exec mixin provides methods for running several different kinds of subprocesses:
- Normal processes started by the operating system.
- Another Ruby process.
- A shell script.
- Another tool run in a separate (forked) process.
- A block run in a separate (forked) process.
For more information, see the Toys::StandardMixins::Exec mixin module and the underyling library Toys::Utils::Exec.
Formatting output
Interacting with the user is a very common function of a command line tool, and many modern tools include intricately designed and styled output, and terminal effects such as progress bars and spinners. Toys provides several mixins that can help create nicer interfaces.
First, there is :terminal
, which provides some basic terminal features such
as styled output and simple spinners. For information, see the
Toys::StandardMixins::Terminal mixin module
and the underyling library
Toys::Terminal.
If you prefer the venerable Highline library interface, Toys provides a mixin
called :highline
that automatically installs the highline gem (version 2.x)
if it is not available, and makes a highline object available to the tool. For
more information, see the
Toys::StandardMixins::Highline mixin module.
You may also use other third-party gems such as tty. The section below on useful gems provides some examples.
Sharing code
As you accumulate additional and more complex tools, you may find that some of your tools need to share some common configuration, data, or logic. You might, for example, have a set of admin scripts that need to do some common authentication. This section describes several techniques for sharing code between tools, and describes the scope of Ruby structures, such as methods, classes, and constants, that you might define in your tools.
Defining mixins
We saw earlier that you can mix a module (with
all its methods) into your tool using the include
directive. You can specify
a module itself, or the name of a built-in mixin such as :exec
or
:terminal
. But you can also define your own mixin using the mixin
directive. A mixin defined in a tool can be include
d in that tool or any of
its subtools or their subtools, recursively, so it's a useful way to share
code. Here's how that works.
Define a mixin using the mixin
directive, and give it a name and a block. The
mixin name must be a string. (Symbols are reserved for built-in mixins.) In the
block, you can define methods that will be made available to any tool that
includes the mixin, in the same way that you can include a Ruby module.
(Note that, unlike full modules, mixins allow only methods to be shared. Mixins do not support constants. See the next section on using constants to learn how Toys handles constants.)
Here's an example. Suppose you had common setup code that you wanted to share among your testing tools.
tool "test" do
# Define a mixin, which is just a collection of methods.
mixin "common_test_code" do
def setup
# Do setup here
end
end
tool "unit" do
# Include the mixin by name
include "common_test_code"
def run
setup # Mixin methods are made available
puts "run only unit tests here..."
end
end
tool "integration" do
include "common_test_code"
def run
setup
puts "run only integration tests here..."
end
end
end
A mixin is available to the tool in which it is defined, and any subtools and
descendants defined at the same point in the Toys search path, but not from
tools defined in a different point in the search path. For example, if you
define a mixin in a file located in a .toys
directory, it will be visible to
descendant tools defined in that same directory, but not in a different .toys
directory.
A common technique, for example, would be to define a mixin in the index file in a Toys directory. You can then include it from any subtools defined in other files in that same directory.
Mixin initializers
Sometimes a mixin will want to initialize some state before the tool executes.
For example, the :highline
mixin creates an instance of Highline during tool
initialization. To do so, provide an on_initialize
block in the mixin block.
The initializer block is called within the context of the tool after arguments
are parsed, so it has access to the tool's built-in context and options.
If you provide extra arguments when you include
a mixin, those are passed to
the initializer block.
For example, suppose the "common_test_code"
mixin needs to behave differently
depending on the type of tests (unit vs integration). Let's have the subtools
pass a value to the mixin's initializer:
tool "test" do
mixin "common_test_code" do
# Initialize the mixin, and receive the argument passed to the
# include directive
on_initialize do |type|
# Initializers are called in the context of the tool, and so can
# affect the tool's state.
set(:test_type, type)
end
def setup
puts "Setting up #{get(:test_type)}..."
end
end
tool "unit" do
# Pass an extra argument to include
include "common_test_code", "unit"
def run
setup
puts "run only unit tests here..."
end
end
tool "integration" do
include "common_test_code", "integration"
def run
setup
puts "run only integration tests here..."
end
end
end
Mixin inclusion hooks
A mixin can also optionally provide directives to run when the mixin is
included, by defining an on_include
block. (This is functionally similar to
defining an included
method on a Ruby module.) The on_include
block is
called within the context of the tool DSL, so it can invoke any DSL directives.
If you provide extra arguments when you include
a mixin, those are passed to
the inclusion block.
Using constants
You can define and use Ruby constants, i.e. names beginning with a capital letter, in a Toys file. However, they are subject to Ruby's rules regarding constant scope and lookup, which can be confusing, especially in a DSL. Toys tries to simplify those rules and make constant behavior somewhat tractable, but if you do use constants (which includes modules and classes defined in a Toys file), it is important to understand how they work.
Constants in Toys are visible only within the Toys file in which they are defined. They normally behave as though they are defined at the "top level" of the file. Even if you define a constant lexically "inside" a tool or a mixin, the constant does not end up connected to that tool or mixin; it is defined at the file level.
tool "test" do
tool "unit" do
# This constant is now usable for the rest of the file
API_KEY_FOR_TESTING = "12345"
def run
# It is visible here
puts API_KEY_FOR_TESTING
end
end
tool "integration" do
def run
# And it is still visible here
puts API_KEY_FOR_TESTING
end
end
end
(Note it is still possible to attach constants to a tool or mixin by defining
them with self::
. However, this is uncommon Ruby practice and is mildly
discouraged.)
Because of this, it is highly recommended that you define constants only at the
top level of a Toys file, so it doesn't "look" like it is scoped to something
smaller. In particular, do not attempt to define constants in a mixin, unless
you scope them with self::
.
Modules and classes defined using the module
or class
keyword, are also
constants, and thus follow the same rules. So you could, for example, define a
"mixin" module like this:
module CommonTestCode
include Toys::Mixin
def setup
# Do setup here
end
end
tool "test" do
tool "unit" do
# Include the modules as a mixin
include CommonTestCode
def run
setup # Module methods are made available
puts "run only unit tests here..."
end
end
tool "integration" do
include CommonTestCode
def run
setup
puts "run only integration tests here..."
end
end
end
The difference between this technique and using the mixin
directive we saw
earlier, is the scope. The module here is accessed via a constant, and so, like
any constant, it is visible only in the same file it is defined in. The mixin
directive creates mixins that are visible from all files at the same point in
the search path.
Not also, when you define a mixin in this way, you should include Toys::Mixin
in the module, as illustrated above. This makes on_initialize
available in
the module.
Templates
Another way to share code is to expand a template.
A template is a class that inserts a bunch of lines into a Toys file. It is
often used to "instantiate" prefabricated tools. For instance, Toys comes with
a template called "minitest" that can generate a test tool for you. You
instantiate it using the expand
directive in your Toys file, like this:
:minitest
And it will generate a tool called "test" that runs your test suite.
Most templates generate one or more complete tools. However, it is possible for a template to generate just part of a tool, such as one or more description directives. In general, expanding a template simply adds directives to your Toys file.
Many templates can be configured with options such as the name of the tool to
generate, or details of the tool's behavior. This is done by passing additional
arguments to the expand
directive, such as:
:minitest, name: "unit-test", warnings: true
Alternatively, you may provide a block to expand
. It will yield the template
to your block, letting you modify its properties:
:minitest do |t|
t.name = "unit-test"
t.warnings = true
end
Toys provides several built-in templates that are useful for project and gem
development, including templates that generate build, test, and documentation
tools. The :minitest
template illustrated above is one of these built-in
templates. Like built-in mixins, built-in template names are always symbols.
You can read more about them in the next section on using
Toys as a Rake replacement.
You may also write your own templates. Here's how...
Defining templates
One way to define a template is to use the template
directive. Like the
mixin
directive, this creates a named template that you can access inside the
current tool and any of its subtools. Also, like mixins, your template name
must be a string.
Following is a simple template example:
template "greet" do
def initialize(name: "greet", whom: "world")
@name = name
@whom = whom
end
attr_accessor :name
attr_accessor :whom
do |template|
tool template.name do
desc "A greeting tool generated from a template"
to_run do
puts "Hello, #{template.whom}!"
end
end
end
end
"greet"
"greet", name: "greet-ruby", whom: "ruby"
Above we created a template called "greet". A template is simply a class. It will typically have a constructor, and methods to access configuration properties. When the template is expanded, the class gets instantiated, and you can set those properties.
Next, a template has an on_expand
block. This block contains the Toys file
directives that should be generated by the template. The template object is
passed to the block, so it can access the template configuration when
generating directives. The "greet" template in the above example generates a
tool whose name is set by the template's name
property.
Notice that in the above example, we used to_run do
, providing a block for
the tool's execution, rather than def run
, providing a method. Both forms are
valid and will work in a template (as well as in a normal Toys file), but the
block form is often useful in a template because you can access the template
variable inside the block, whereas it would not be accessible if you defined a
method. Similarly, if your template generates helper methods, and the body of
those methods need access to the template
variable, you can use
Module#define_method
instead of def
.
By convention, it is a good idea for configuration options for your template to
be settable both as arguments to the constructor, and as attr_accessor
properties. In this way, when you expand the template, options can be provided
either as arguments to the expand
directive, or in a block passed to the
directive by setting properties on the template object.
Template classes
Finally, templates are classes, and you can create a template directly as a class by including the Toys::Template module in your class definition.
class GreetTemplate
include Toys::Template
def initialize(name: "greet", whom: "world")
@name = name
@whom = whom
end
attr_accessor :name
attr_accessor :whom
do |template|
tool template.name do
desc "A greeting tool generated from a template"
to_run do
puts "Hello, #{template.whom}!"
end
end
end
end
GreetTemplate, name: "greet-ruby", whom: "ruby"
Remember that classes created this way are constants, and so the name
GreetTemplate
is available only inside the Toys file where it was defined.
You must include Toys::Template
if you define a template directly as a class,
but you can omit it if you use the template
directive to define the template
in a block.
Defining templates as classes is also a useful way for third-party gems to
provide Toys integration. For example, suppose you are writing a code analysis
gem, and you want to make it easy for your users to create a Toys tool that
invokes your analysis. Just write a template class in your gem, maybe named
MyAnalysis::ToysTemplate
. Now, just instruct your users to include the
following in their Toys file:
require "my_analysis"
MyAnalysis::ToysTemplate
Loading from a lib directory
For more complicated tools, you might want to write normal Ruby modules and
classes as helpers. Toys provides a way to write Ruby code outside of its DSL
and require
the code from your tool, using .lib
directories.
To use .lib
directories, you must define your tools inside a
Toys directory. When a tool is executed, it looks for
directories called .lib
in the Toys directory, and adds them to the Ruby load
path. Your tool can thus call require
to load helpers from any Ruby files in
a .lib
directory.
For example, take the following directory structure:
(current directory)
|
+- .toys/
|
+- .lib/ <-- available when a tool is executed
| |
| +- greeting_helper.rb
|
+- greet.rb
The greeting_helper.rb
file can contain any Ruby code.
# .toys/.lib/greeting_helper.rb
module GreetingHelper
def self.make_greeting(whom)
"Hello, #{whom}!"
end
end
Now you can require "greeting_helper"
in your greet
tool.
# .toys/greet.rb
tool "greet" do
optional_arg :whom, default: "world", desc: "Whom to greet."
def run
require "greeting_helper"
puts GreetingHelper.make_greeting(whom)
end
end
Note that .lib
directories are available only when your tool is being run,
not when it is being defined. So any require
statements should be located
inside your run
method.
tool "greet" do
# Do not try to require the file here. Toys will not find it because
# the tool is not yet being run.
# require "greeting_helper" # ERRORS!
optional_arg :whom, default: "world", desc: "Whom to greet."
def run
# Require a helper file here, so it is loaded during tool execution.
require "greeting_helper"
# Now you can use classes defined in the helper
puts GreetingHelper.make_greeting(whom)
end
end
If your Toys directory has subdirectories, lib directories will be prioritized by how close they are to the tool being executed. For example:
(current directory)
|
+- .toys/
|
+- .lib/ <-- available when any tool defined in this directory
| | is executed
| |
| +- helper.rb <-- visible to "greet" but not "test unit"
| |
| +- helper2.rb <-- visible to both "greet" and "test unit"
|
+- greet.rb
|
+- test/
|
+- .lib/ <-- available only when tools under "test" are executed
| |
| +- helper.rb <-- overrides the other helper.rb when
| "test unit" is executed
|
+- unit.rb
Preloading Ruby files
You may also provide Ruby files that are "preloaded" before tools are defined.
This is useful if those Ruby files are required by the tool definitions
themselves. Like files in the .lib
directory, preloaded files can define Ruby
classes, modules, and other code. But preloaded files automatically loaded
(i.e. you do not require
them explicitly) before your tools are defined.
To use preloaded files, you must define your tools inside a
Toys directory. Before any tools inside a directory are
loaded, any file named .preload.rb
in the directory is automatically
required. Additionally, any Ruby files inside a subdirectory called .preload
are also automatically required.
For example, take the following directory structure:
(current directory)
|
+- .toys/
|
+- .preload.rb <-- required first
|
+- greet.rb <-- defines "greet" (and subtools)
|
+- test/
|
+- .preload/
| |
| +- my_classes.rb <-- required before unit.rb
| |
| +- my_modules.rb <-- also required before unit.rb
|
+- unit.rb <-- defines "test unit" (and its subtools)
Toys will execute
require ".toys/.preload.rb"
first before loading any of the tools in the .toys
directory (or any of its
subdirectories). Thus, you can define classes used by both the greet
and the
test unit
tool in this file.
Furthermore, Toys will also execute
require ".toys/test/.preload/my_classes.rb"
require ".toys/test/.preload/my_modules.rb"
first before loading any of the tools in the test
subdirectory. Thus, any
additional classes needed by test unit
can be defined in these files.
Either a single .preload.rb
file or a .preload
directory, or both, may be
used. If both are present in the same directory, the .preload.rb
file is
loaded first before the .preload
directory contents.
Using third-party gems
The toys executable itself uses only two gems: toys and toys-core. It has no other gem dependencies. However, the Ruby community has developed many resources for building command line tools, including a variety of gems that provide alternate command line parsing, control of the ANSI terminal, formatted output such as trees and tables, and effects such as hidden input, progress bars, various ways to spawn and control subprocesses, and so forth. You may find some of these gems useful when writing your tools. Additionally, if you are using Toys for your project's build scripts, it might be necessary to install your bundle when running some tools.
This section describes how to manage and use external gems with Toys. Note that
running Toys with bundle exec
is generally not recommended. We'll discuss
the reasons for this, and what you can do instead.
Why not "bundle exec toys"
Bundler is often used when a command-line program depends
on external gems. You specify the gem dependencies in a Gemfile
, use bundler
to resolve and install those dependencies, and then run the program prefixed by
bundle exec
to ensure those dependencies are in the Ruby load path. When
running a Rake task, for example, it is almost automatic for many Ruby
developers to run bundle exec rake my-task
.
So why not simply run bundle exec toys my-tool
?
In simple cases, this will work just fine. However, Toys is a much more
flexible tool than Rake, and it covers two cases that are not well served by
bundle exec
.
First, Toys lets you define global tools that are defined in your home directory or system config directory. (See the previous section on the Toys search path.) These tools are global, and can be called from anywhere. But if they have gem dependencies, it might not be feasible for their Gemfiles to be present in every directory from which you might want to run them.
Second, it's possible for a variety of tools to be available together,
including both locally and globally defined, with potentially different sets of
dependencies. With bundle exec
, you must choose beforehand which bundle to
use.
Although traditional bundle exec
doesn't always work, Toys provides ways for
individual tools to manage their own gem dependencies.
Using bundler with a tool
The recommended way for a Toys tool to depend on third-party gems is for the
tool to set up Bundler when it runs. The tool can load a bundle from an
appropriate Gemfile
at runtime, by including the :bundler
mixin.
Here's an example. Suppose you are writing a tool in a Rails app. It might, for
example, load the Rails environment and populate some data into the database.
Hence, it needs to run with your app's bundle, represented by your app's
Gemfile
.
Simply include :bundler
in your tool definition:
tool "populate-data" do
include :bundler
def run
# The bundle will be set up before the tool is run,
# so you can now run code that depends on rails:
require "./config/environment.rb"
# ... etc.
end
end
When the :bundler
mixin is included in a tool, it installs a
mixin initializer that calls Bundler.setup
when the
tool is executed. This assumes the bundle is already installed, and brings
the appropriate gems into the Ruby load path. That is, it's basically the same
as bundle exec
, but it applies only to the running tool.
In many cases, you might find that bundler is needed for many or most of the tools you write for a particular project. In this case, you might find it convenient to use Toys::DSL::Tool#subtool_apply to include the bundle in all your tools. For example:
# Include bundler in every tool under this one
subtool_apply do
include :bundler
end
tool "one-tool" do
# This tool will run with the bundle
# ...
end
tool "another-tool" do
# So will this tool
# ...
end
See the section on
applying directives to multiple tools
for more information on subtool_apply
.
Bundler options
By default, the :bundler
mixin will look for a Gemfile
within the .toys
directory (if your tool is defined in one), and if one is not found there,
within the context directory (the directory
containing your .toys
directory or .toys.rb
file), and if one still is not
found, in the current working directory. You can change this behavior by
passing an option to the :bundler
mixin. For example, you can search only the
current working directory by passing search_dirs: :current
as such:
tool "populate-data" do
include :bundler, search_dirs: :current
# etc...
end
You can also pass a specific directory path to this option.
If the bundle is not installed, or is out of date, Toys will ask you whether
you want it to install the bundle first before running the tool. A tool can
also choose to install the bundle without prompting, or simply to raise an
error, by passing another option to the :bundler
mixin. For example, to
simply install the bundle without asking for confirmation:
tool "populate-data" do
include :bundler, on_missing: :install
# etc...
end
See the documentation for Toys::StandardMixins::Bundler for more information about bundler options.
Solving bundle conflicts
It is important to understand that the :bundler
mixin installs the bundle
when the tool executes, rather than when the tool is defined. Gems in the
bundle will not be available during tool definition, so for example you
cannot reference bundled gems when you are setting up the tool's flags,
description, or other directives. This is so that Toys can define tools with
competing bundles. Your Rails app's tools can use that app's bundle, while your
global tools can use a different bundle. They will not conflict because Toys
will not actually load a bundle until one or the other tool is executed. (This
is of course different from using bundle exec
, which chooses and loads a
bundle before even starting Toys.)
If a different bundle (i.e. a different Gemfile
) is already in effect when
a tool is run, then the :bundler
mixin will raise an error. Ruby will not let
you set up two different bundles at the same time. This might happen, for
example, if you use bundle exec
to run Toys, but the tool you are running
asks for a different bundle---one more reason not to use bundle exec
with
Toys.
It might also happen if one tool that uses one bundle, calls a tool that uses
a different bundle. If you need to do this, use the
Toys::StandardMixins::Exec#exec_separate_tool
method from the :exec
mixin, to call the tool. This method spawns a separate
process with a clean Bundler setup for running the tool.
Activating gems directly
Although we recommend the :bundler
mixin for most cases, it is also possible
for a tool to install individual gems, using the :gems
mixin. This mixin
provides a way for a tool to install individual gems without using Bundler.
Here's an example tool that just runs rake
. Because it requires rake to be
installed in order to run the tool, we call the
Toys::StandardMixins::Gems#gem
method (which is provided by the :gems
mixin) at the beginning of the run
method:
tool "rake" do
include :gems
remaining_args :rake_args
def run
gem "rake", "~> 12.0"
Kernel.exec(["rake"] + rake_args)
end
end
The gem
method takes the name of the gem, and an optional set of version
requirements. If a gem matching the given version requirements is installed, it
is activated. If not, the gem is installed (which the user can confirm or
abort). Or, if Toys is being run in a bundle, a message is printed informing
the user that they need to add the gem to their Gemfile.
If a gem satisfying the given version constraints is already activated, it remains active. If a gem with a conflicting version is already activated, an exception is raised.
The :gems
mixin also provides a gem
directive that ensures a gem is
installed while the tool is being defined. In general, we recommend avoiding
doing this, because it could make your tool incompatible with another tool that
might need a competing gem during its definition. Toys would not be able to
define both tools together. However, occasionally it might be useful.
Here's an example tool with flags for each of the HighLine styles. Because
highline is needed to decide what flags to define, we use the gem
directive
to ensure highline is installed while the tool is being defined.
tool "highline-styles-demo" do
include :gems
gem "highline", "~> 2.0"
require "highline"
HighLine::BuiltinStyles::STYLES.each do |style|
style = style.downcase
flag style.to_sym, "--#{style}", "Apply #{style} to the text"
end
def run
# ...
end
end
If you are not in the Toys DSL context—for example from a class-based
mixin—you should use
Toys::Utils::Gems.activate
instead. (Note that you must require "toys/utils/gems"
explicitly before
invoking the
Toys::Utils::Gems
class because, like all classes under Toys::Utils
, Toys does not load it
automatically.) For example:
require "toys/utils/gems"
Toys::Utils::Gems.activate("highline", "~> 2.0")
Note these methods are a bit different from the gem method provided by Rubygems. The Toys version attempts to install a missing gem for you, whereas Rubygems will just throw an exception.
Useful gems
Now that you know how to ensure a gem is installed, either individually or as part of a bundle, let's look at some third-party gems that you might find useful when writing tools.
We already saw how to use the highline gem. Highline generally provides two features: terminal styling, and prompts. For these capabilities and many more, you might also consider TTY. It comprises a suite of gems that you can use separately or in tandem. Here are a few examples.
To produce styled output, consider Pastel.
tool "fancy-output" do
def run
require "pastel"
pastel = Pastel.new
puts pastel.red("Rubies!")
end
end
To create rich user prompts, consider tty-prompt.
tool "favorite-language" do
def run
require "tty-prompt"
prompt = TTY::Prompt.new
lang = prompt.select("What is your favorite language?",
%w[Elixir Java Python Ruby Rust Other])
prompt.say("#{lang} is awesome!")
end
end
To create tabular output, consider tty-table.
tool "matrix" do
def run
require "tty-table"
table = TTY::Table.new(["Language", "Creator"],
[["Ruby", "Matz"],
["Python", "Guido"],
["Elixir", "Jose"]])
puts table.render(:ascii)
end
end
To show progress, consider tty-progressbar for deterministic processes, or tty-spinner for non-deterministic.
tool "waiting" do
def run
require "tty-progressbar"
= TTY::ProgressBar.new("Waiting [:bar]", total: 30)
30.times do
sleep(0.1)
.advance(1)
end
end
end
A variety of other useful gems can also be found in this article.
Toys as a Rake replacement
Toys was designed to organize scripts that may be "scoped" to a project or
directory. Rake is also commonly used for this purpose: you can write a
"Rakefile" that defines rake tasks scoped to a directory. In many cases, Toys
can be used as a replacement for Rake. Indeed, the Toys repository itself
contains a .toys.rb
file instead of a Rakefile, for running tests, builds,
and so forth.
This section will explore the differences between Toys and Rake, and describe how to use Toys for some of the things traditionally done with Rake.
Comparing Toys and Rake
Although Toys and Rake serve many of the same use cases, they have very different design goals, and it is useful to understand them.
Rake's design is based on the classic "make" tool often provided in unix development environments. This design focuses on targets and dependencies, and is meant for a world where you invoke an external compiler tool whenever changes are made to an individual source file or any of its dependencies. This "declarative" approach expresses very well the build process for programs written in C and similar compiled languages.
Ruby, however, does not have an external compiler, and certainly not one that requires separate invocation for each source file as does the C compiler. So although Rake does support file dependencies, they are much less commonly used than in their Makefile cousins. Instead, in practice, most Rake tasks are not connected to a dependency at all; they are simply standalone scripts, what would be called "phony" targets in a Makefile. Such tasks are more imperative than declarative.
The Toys approach to build tools simply embraces the fact that our build processes already tend to be imperative. So unlike Rake, Toys does not provide syntax for describing targets and dependencies, since we generally don't have them in Ruby programs. Instead, it is optimized for writing tools.
For example, Rake provides a primitive mechanism for passing arguments to a task, but it is clumsy and quite different from most unix programs. However, to do otherwise would clash with Rake's design goal of treating tasks as targets and dependencies. Toys does not have those design goals, so it is able to embrace the familiar unix conventions for command line arguments.
Toys actually borrows some of its design from the "mix" build tool used for Elixir and Erlang programs. Unlike C, the Erlang and Elixir compilers do their own dependency management, so mix does not require those capabilities. Instead, it focuses on making it easy to define imperative tasks.
All told, this boils down to the principle of using the best tool for the job. There will be times when you need to express file-based dependencies in some of your build tasks. Rake will continue to be your friend in those cases. However, for imperative tasks such as "run my tests", "build my YARD documentation", or "release my gem", you may find Toys easier to use.
Using Toys to invoke Rake tasks
If you've already written a Rakefile for your project, Toys provides a
convenient way to invoke your existing Rake tasks using Toys. The built-in
:rake
template reads a Rakefile and automatically generates corresponding
tools.
In the same directory as your Rakefile, create a .toys.rb
file with the
following contents:
# In .toys.rb
:rake
Now within that directory, if you had a Rake task called test
, you can invoke
it with:
$ toys test
Similarly, a Rake task named test:integration
can be invoked with either of
the following:
$ toys test integration
$ toys test:integration
Rake tasks with arguments are mapped to tool arguments, making it easier to invoke those tasks using Toys. For example, consider a Rake task with two arguments, defined as follows:
# In Rakefile
task :my_task, [:first, :second] do |task, args|
do_something_with args[:first]
do_something_else_with args[:second]
end
would have to be invoked as follows using rake:
$ rake my_task[value1,value2]
You may even need to escape the brackets if you are using a shell that treats them specially. Toys will let you pass them as normal command line arguments:
$ toys my_task value1 value2
The :rake
template provides several options. If your Rakefile is named
something other than Rakefile
or isn't in the current directory, you can
pass an explicit path to it when expanding the template:
# In .toys.rb
:rake, rakefile_path: "path/to/my_rakefile"
You may also choose to pass arguments as named flags rather than command line
arguments. Set :use_flags
when expanding the template:
# In .toys.rb
:rake, use_flags: true
Now with this option, to pass arguments to the tool, use the argument names as flags:
$ toys my_task --first=value1 --second=value2
From Rakefiles to Toys files
Invoking Rake tasks using Toys is an easy first step, but eventually you will likely want to migrate some of your project's build tasks from Rake to Toys. The remainder of this section describes the common patterns and features Toys provides for writing build tasks that are traditionally done with Rake.
Many common Rake tasks can be generated using code provided by either Rake or the third party library. Different libraries provide different mechanisms for task generation. For example, a test task might be defined like this:
require "rake/testtask"
Rake::TestTask.new do |t|
t.test_files = FileList["test/test*.rb"]
end
In Toys, templates are the standard mechanism for generating tools.
:minitest do |t|
t.files = ["test/test*.rb"]
end
The following sections will describe some of the built-in templates provided by Toys to generate common build tools.
Note that Rakefiles and Toys files can coexist in the same directory, so you can use either or both tools, depending on your needs.
Running tests
Toys provides a built-in template called :minitest
for running unit tests
with minitest. The following example
directive uses the minitest template to create a tool called test
:
:minitest, files: ["test/test*.rb"], libs: ["lib", "ext"]
See the Toys::Templates::Minitest documentation for details on the available options.
Toys also provides a built-in template called :rspec
for running BDD examples
using RSpec. The following example directive uses this
template to create a tool called spec
:
expand :rspec, pattern: "spec/**/*_spec.rb", libs: ["lib, "ext"]
See the Toys::Templates::Rspec documentation for details on the available options.
If you want to enforce code style using the
rubocop gem, you can use the built-in
:rubocop
template. The following directive uses this template to create a
tool called rubocop
:
:rubocop
See the Toys::Templates::Rubocop documentation for details on the available options.
Building and releasing gems
The :gem_build
built-in template can generate a variety of build and release
tools for gems, and is a useful alternative to the Rake tasks provided by
bundler. It is implemented by Toys::Templates::GemBuild. The following
directive uses this template to create a tool called build
:
:gem_build
The :gem_build
template by default looks for a gemspec file in the current
directory, and builds that gem into a pkg
directory. You can also build a
specific gem if you have multiple gemspec files.
You may also configure the template so it also releases the gem to Rubygems
(using your stored Rubygems credentials), by setting the push_gem
option.
For example, here is how to generate a "release" tool that builds and releases
your gem:
:gem_build, name: "release", push_gem: true
See the Toys::Templates::GemBuild documentation for details on the various options for build tools.
To create a "clean" tool, you can use the :clean
built-in template. For
example:
:clean, paths: ["pkg", "doc", "tmp"]
See the Toys::Templates::Clean documentation for details on the various options for clean.
Building documentation
Toys provides an :rdoc
template for creating tools that generate RDoc
documentation, and a :yardoc
template for creating tools that generate YARD.
Both templates provide a variety of options for controlling documentation
generation. See Toys::Templates::Rdoc and Toys::Templates::Yardoc for
detailed information.
Here's an example for YARD, creating a tool called yardoc
:
:yardoc, protected: true, markup: "markdown"
Gem example
Let's look at a complete example that combines the techniques above to provide all the basic tools for a Ruby gem. It includes:
- A testing tool that can be invoked using
toys test
- Code style checking using Rubocop, invoked using
toys rubocop
- Documentation building using Yardoc, invoked using
toys yardoc
- Gem building, invoked using
toys build
- Gem build and release to Rubygems.org, invoked using
toys release
- A full CI tool, invoked using
toys ci
, that can be run from your favorite CI system. It runs the tests and style checks, and checks (but does not actually build) the documentation for warnings and completeness.
Below is the full annotated .toys.rb
file. For many gems, you could drop this
into the gem source repo with minimal or no modifications. Indeed, it is very
similar to the Toys files provided for the toys and toys-core gems
themselves.
# This file is .toys.rb
# A "clean" tool that cleans out gem builds (from the pkg directory), and
# documentation builds (from doc and .yardoc)
:clean, paths: ["pkg", "doc", ".yardoc"]
# This is the "test" tool.
:minitest, libs: ["lib", "test"]
# This is the "rubocop" tool.
:rubocop
# This is the "yardoc" tool. We cause it to fail on warnings and if there
# are any undocumented objects, which is useful for CI. We also configure
# the tool so it recognizes the "--no-output" flag. The CI tool will use
# this flag to invoke yardoc but suppress output, because it just wants to
# check for warnings.
:yardoc do |t|
t.generate_output_flag = true
t.fail_on_warning = true
t.fail_on_undocumented_objects = true
end
# The normal "build" tool that just builds a gem into the pkg directory.
:gem_build
# An "install" tool that builds the gem and installs it locally.
:gem_build, name: "install", install_gem: true
# A full gem "release" tool that builds the gem, and pushes it to rubygems.
# This assumes your local rubygems configuration is set up with the proper
# credentials.
:gem_build, name: "release", push_gem: true
# Now we create a full CI tool. It runs the test, rubocop, and yardoc tools
# and checks for errors. This tool could be invoked from a CI system.
tool "ci" do
# The :exec mixin provides the exec_tool() method that we will use to run
# other tools and check their exit status.
include :exec
# The :terminal mixin provides an enhanced "puts" method that lets you
# write styled text to the terminal.
include :terminal
# A helper method, that runs a tool and outputs the result. It also
# terminates if the tool reported an error.
def run_stage(name, tool)
if exec_tool(tool).success?
puts("** #{name} passed", :green, :bold)
puts
else
puts("** CI terminated: #{name} failed!", :red, :bold)
exit(1)
end
end
# The main run method. It just calls the above helper method for the
# three tools we want to run for CI
def run
run_stage("Tests", ["test"])
run_stage("Style checker", ["rubocop"])
run_stage("Docs generation", ["yardoc", "--no-output"])
end
end
Advanced tool definition techniques
This section covers some additional features that are often useful for writing tools. I've labeled them "advanced", but all that really means is that this user's guide didn't happen to have covered them until this section. Each of these features is very useful for certain types of tools, and it is good at least to know that you can do these things, even if you don't use them regularly.
Delegating tools
A tool may delegate to another tool, which means it uses the other tool's flags, arguments, and execution. Effectively, it becomes an "alias"---that is, an alternate name---for the target tool.
For example, suppose you have a tool called test
that can be invoked with
toys test
. You could define a tool t
that delegates to test
. Then,
running toys t
will have the same effect as toys test
.
To delegate a tool, pass the :delegate_to
keyword argument to the tool
directive. For example:
tool "test" do
# Define test tool here...
end
tool "t", delegate_to: "test"
Tools can delegate to tools or namespaces. For example, you can delegate sys
to the built-in namespace system
:
tool "sys", delegate_to: "system"
That will let you run toys sys version
(which will be the equivalent of
toys system version
).
To delegate to a subtool, pass an array, or a string delimited by ":"
or
"."
characters, as the target:
tool "gem" do
tool "test" do
# Define the tool here
end
end
tool "test", delegate_to: ["gem", "test"]
In most cases, if a tool delegates to another tool, you should not do anything else with it. For example, it should not have its own implementation or contain any subtools. However, there are a few exceptions. You might, for example, want a namespace to delegate to one of its subtools:
tool "test", delegate_to: ["test", "unit"] do
tool "unit" do
# Run unit tests
end
tool "integration" do
# Run integration tests
end
end
Now toys test
delegates to, and thus has the same effect as toys test unit
.
Applying directives to multiple tools
Sometimes a group of tools are set up similarly or share a set of flags, mixins, or other directives. You can apply a set of directives to all subtools (recursively) of the current tool, using the Toys::DSL::Tool#subtool_apply directive.
For example, it is common for tools to use the :exec
built-in mixin to invoke
external programs. You can use subtool_apply
to ensure that the mixin is
included in all subtools, so that you do not need to repeat the include
directive in every tool.
subtool_apply do
# Include the mixin only if the tool hasn't already done so
unless include?(:exec)
include :exec, exit_on_nonzero_status: true
end
end
tool "my-tool" do
def run
# This tool has access to methods defined by the :exec mixin
# because the above block is applied to the tool
sh "echo hello"
end
end
Importantly, subtool_apply
blocks are "applied" at the end of a tool's
definition. Therefore, when using subtool_apply
, you have the ability to look
at the current definition of the tool to decide whether to apply further
changes. The subtool_apply
block in the above example uses this technique; it
checks whether the :exec
mixin has already been included before attempting to
include it. Thus, it is possible for a tool to "override" the inclusion, say,
to use a different configuration:
tool "another-tool" do
# Use a different configuration for the :exec mixin.
# This "overrides" the subtool_apply block above.
include :exec, exit_on_nonzero_status: false
def run
# This is run with exit_on_nonzero_status: false
sh "echo hello"
end
end
Custom acceptors
We saw earlier that flags and positional arguments can have acceptors, which control the allowed format, and may also convert the string argument to a Ruby object. By default, Toys supports the same acceptors recognized by Ruby's OptionParser library. And like OptionParser, Toys also lets you define your own acceptors.
Define an acceptor using the acceptor
directive. You provide a name for the
acceptor, and specify how to validate input strings and how to convert input
strings to Ruby objects. You may then reference the acceptor in that tool or
any of its subtools or their subtools, recursively.
There are several ways to define an acceptor.
You may validate input strings against a regular expression, by passing the
regex to the acceptor
directive. You may also optionally provide a block to
convert input strings to objects (or omit the block to use the original string
as the option value.) For example, a simple hexadecimal input acceptor might
look like this:
acceptor("hex", /^[0-9a-fA-F]+$/) { |input| input.to_i(16) }
You may also accept enum values by passing an array of valid values to the
acceptor
directive. Inputs will be matched against the to_s
form of the
given values, and will be converted to the value itself. For example, one way
to accept integers from 1 to 5 is:
acceptor("1to5", [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
There are various other options. See the reference documentation for Toys::DSL::Tool#acceptor.
An acceptor is available to the tool in which it is defined, and any subtools
and descendants defined at the same point in the Toys search path, but not from
tools defined in a different point in the search path. For example, if you
define an acceptor in a file located in a .toys
directory, it will be visible
to descendant tools defined in that same directory, but not in a different
.toys
directory.
A common technique, for example, would be to define an acceptor in the index file in a Toys directory. You can then include it from any subtools defined in other files in that same directory.
Controlling built-in flags
Earlier we saw that certain flags are added automatically to every tool:
--verbose
, --quiet
, --help
, and so forth. You may occasionally want to
disable some of these "built-in" flags. There are two ways to do so:
If you want to use one of the built-in flags for another purpose, simply define the flag as you choose. Flags explicitly defined by your tool take precedence over the built-ins.
For example, normally two built-in flags are provided to decrease the verbosity
level: -q
and --quiet
. If you define -q
yourself (for example to activate
a "quick" mode) then -q
will be repurposed for your flag, but --quiet
will
still be present to decrease verbosity.
# Repurposes -q to set the "quick" option instead of "quiet"
flag :quick, "-q"
You may also completely disable a flag, and not repurpose it, using the
disable_flag
directive. It lets you mark one or more flags as "never use".
For example, if you disable the -q
flag, then -q
will no longer be a
built-in flag that decreases the verbosity, but --quiet
will remain. To
completely disable decreasing the verbosity, disable both -q
and --quiet
.
# Disables -q but leaves --quiet
disable_flag "-q"
# Completely disables decreasing verbosity
disable_flag "-q", "--quiet"
Enforcing flags before args
By default, tools allow flags and positional arguments to be interspersed when command line arguments are parsed. This matches the behavior of most common command line binaries.
However, some tools prefer to follow the convention that all flags must appear first, followed by positional arguments. In such a tool, once a non-flag argument appears on the command line, all remaining arguments are treated as positional, even if they look like a flag and start with a hyphen.
You may configure a tool to follow this alternate parsing strategy using the
enforce_flags_before_args
directive.
The built-in tool toys do
is an example of a tool that does this. It
recognizes its own flags (such as --help
and --delim
) but once positional
arguments start appearing, it wants further flags to be treated as positional
so it can pass them down to the different steps it is executing. Here is a
simplified excerpt from the implementation that tool:
tool "do" do
flag :delim, default: ","
remaining_args :commands # the commands to execute
enforce_flags_before_args
def run
# Now commands includes both the commands to run and
# the "flags" to pass to them.
commands.each do
# ...
end
end
end
Requiring exact flag matches
By default, tools will recognized "shortened" forms of long flags. For example, most suppose you are defining a tool with long flags:
tool "my-tool" do
flag :long_flag_name, "--long-flag-name"
flag :another_long_flag, "--another-long-flag"
def run
# ...
end
end
When you invoke this tool, you do not need to type the entire flag names. Abbreviations will also work:
$ toys my-tool --long --an
As long as the abbreviation is unambiguous (i.e. there is no other flag that begins with the same string), the Toys argument parser will recognize the flag. This is consistent with the behavior of most command line tools (and is also the behavior of Ruby's OptionParser library.)
However, it is possible to disable this behavior and require that flags be
presented in their entirety, using the require_exact_flag_match
directive.
tool "my-tool" do
require_exact_flag_match
flag :long_flag_name, "--long-flag-name"
flag :another_long_flag, "--another-long-flag"
def run
# ...
end
end
Now, all flags for this tool must be presented in their entirety. Abbreviations are not allowed.
$ toys my-tool --long-flag-name --another-long-flag
Currently you can require exact flag matches only at the tool level, applied to all flags for that tool. You cannot set this option for individual flags.
Disabling argument parsing
Normally Toys handles parsing command line arguments for you. This makes writing tools easier, and also allows Toys to generate documentation automatically for flags and arguments. However, occasionally you'll want Toys not to perform any parsing, but just to give you the command line arguments raw. One common case is if your tool turns around and passes its arguments verbatim to a subprocess.
To disable argument parsing, use the disable_argument_parsing
directive. This
directive disables parsing and validation of flags and positional arguments.
(Thus, it is incompatible with specifying any flags or arguments for the tool.)
Instead, you can retrieve the raw arguments using the
Toys::Context#args method.
Here is an example that wraps calls to git:
tool "my-git" do
desc "Prints a message, and then calls git normally"
disable_argument_parsing
def run
puts "Calling my-git!"
Kernel.exec(["git"] + args)
end
end
Handling interrupts
If you interrupt a running tool, say, by hitting CTRL
-C
, Toys will normally
terminate execution and display the message INTERRUPTED
on the standard error
stream.
If your tool needs to handle interrupts itself, you have several options. You
can rescue the Interrupt
exception or call Signal.trap
. Or you can provide
an interrupt handler in your tool using the on_interrupt
directive. This
directive either provides a block to handle interrupts, or designates a named
method as the handler. If an interrupt handler is present, Toys will handle
interrupts as follows:
- Toys will terminate the tool's
run
method by raising anInterrupt
exception. Anyensure
blocks will be called. - Toys will call the interrupt handler. If this method or block takes an
argument, Toys will pass it the
Interrupt
exception object. - The interrupt handler is then responsible for tool execution from that
point. It may terminate execution by returning or calling
exit
, or it may restart or resume processing (perhaps by calling therun
method again). Or it may invoke the normal Toys interrupt handling (i.e. terminating execution, displaying the messageINTERRUPTED
) by re-raising the same interrupt exception object. - If another interrupt takes place during the execution of the interrupt
handler, Toys will terminate it by raising a second
Interrupt
exception (calling anyensure
blocks). Then, the interrupt handler will be called again and passed the new exception. Any additional interrupts will be handled similarly.
Because the interrupt handler is called again even if it is itself interrupted,
you might consider detecting this case if your interrupt handler might be
long-running. You can tell how many interrupts have taken place by looking at
the Exception#cause
property of the exception. The first interrupt will have
a cause of nil
. The second interrupt (i.e. the interrupt raised the first
time the interrupt handler is itself interrupted) will have its cause point to
the first interrupt (which in turn has a nil
cause.) The third interrupt's
cause will point to the second interrupt, and so on. So you can determine the
interrupt "depth" by counting the length of the cause chain.
Here is an example that performs a long-running task. The first two times the task is interrupted, it is restarted. The third time, it is terminated.
tool "long-running" do
def long_task(is_restart)
puts "task #{is_restart ? 're' : ''}starting..."
sleep 10
puts "task finished!"
end
def run
long_task(false)
end
on_interrupt do |ex|
# The third interrupt will have a non-nil ex.cause.cause.
# At that time, just give up and re-raise the exception, which causes
# it to propagate out and invoke the standard Toys interrupt handler.
raise ex if ex.cause&.cause
# Otherwise, restart the long task.
long_task(true)
end
end
Handling usage errors
Normally, if Toys detects a usage error (such as an unrecognized flag) while
parsing arguments, it will respond by aborting the tool and displaying the
usage error. It is possible to override this behavior by providing your own
usage error handler using the on_usage_error
directive. This directive either
provides a block to handle usage errors, or designates a named method as the
handler.
If your handler block or method takes a parameter, Toys will pass it the array of usage errors. Otherwise, you can get the array by calling Toys::Context#usage_errors. This array will provide you with a list of the usage errors encountered.
You can also get information about the arguments that could not be parsed from
the context. For example, the list of unrecognized flags is available from the
context key UNMATCHED_FLAGS
.
One common technique is to redirect usage errors back to the run
method. In
this way, run
is called regardless of whether argument parsing succeeded or
failed.
tool "lenient-parser" do
flag :abc
on_usage_error :run
def run
if usage_errors.empty?
puts "Usage was correct"
else
puts "Usage was not correct"
end
end
end
Data files
If your tools require images, archives, keys, or other such static data, Toys provides a convenient place to put data files that can be looked up by tools either during definition or runtime.
To use data files, you must define your tools inside a
Toys directory. Within the Toys directory, create a
directory named .data
and copy your data files there.
You may then "find" a data file by providing the relative path to the file from
the .data
directory. When defining a tool, use the
Toys::DSL::Tool#find_data
directive in a Toys file. Or, at tool execution time, call
Toys::Context#find_data
(which is a convenience method for getting the tool source object using the
TOOL_SOURCE
key, and calling
Toys::SourceInfo#find_data
on it). In either case, find_data
locates a matching file (or directory)
among the data files, and returns the full path to that file system object. You
may then read the file or perform any other operation on it.
For example, take the following directory structure:
(current directory)
|
+- .toys/
|
+- .data/
| |
| +- greeting.txt
| |
| +- desc/
| |
| +- short.txt
|
+- greet.rb <-- defines "greet" (and subtools)
The data files in .toys/.data
are available to any tool in the .toys
directory or any of its subdirectories. For example, suppose we want our
"greet" tool to use the contents of greeting.txt
. We can call find_data
to
read those contents when the tool is executed:
# greet.rb
desc "Print a friendly greeting."
optional_arg :whom, default: "world", desc: "Whom to greet."
def run
greeting = IO.read(find_data("greeting.txt")).strip
puts "#{greeting}, #{whom}!"
end
You can include directories in the argument to find_data
. For example, here
is how to use the find_data
directive to read the short description from the
file "desc/short.txt":
# greet.rb
desc IO.read(find_data("desc/short.txt")).strip
optional_arg :whom, default: "world", desc: "Whom to greet."
def run
greeting = IO.read(find_data("greeting.txt")).strip
puts "#{greeting}, #{whom}!"
end
The find_data
mechanism will return the "closest" file or directory found.
In the example below, there is a desc/short.txt
file in the .data
directory
at the top level, but there is also a desc/short.txt
file in the .data
directory under test
. Tools under the test
directory will find the more
specific data file, while other tools will find the more general file.
(current directory)
|
+- .toys/
|
+- .data/
| |
| +- greeting.txt
| |
| +- desc/
| |
| +- short.txt <-- default description for all tools
|
+- greet.rb <-- defines "greet" (and subtools)
|
+- test/
|
+- .data/
| |
| +- desc/
| |
| +- short.txt <-- override description for test tools
|
+- unit.rb <-- defines "test unit" (and its subtools)
If, however, you find greeting.txt
from a tool under test
, it will still
find the more general .toys/.data/greeting.txt
file because there is no
overriding file under .toys/test/.data
.
The context directory
The context directory for a tool is the directory containing the toplevel
.toys.rb
file or the .toys
directory within which the tool is defined. It
is sometimes useful for tools that expect to be run from a specific working
directory.
For example, suppose you have a Ruby project directory:
my-project/
|
+- .toys.rb <-- project tools defined here
|
+- lib/
|
+- test/
|
etc...
Now suppose you defined a tool that lists the tests:
tool "list-tests" do
def run
puts Dir.glob("test/**/*.rb").join("\n")
end
end
This tool assumes it will be run from the main project directory (my-project
in the above case). However, Toys lets you invoke tools even if you are in a
subdirectory:
$ cd lib
$ toys list-tests # Does not work
Rake handles this by actually changing the current working directory to the
directory containing the active Rakefile. Toys, however, does not change the
working directory unless you tell it to. You can make the list-tests
tool
work correctly by changing the directory to the context directory (which is the
directory containing the .toys.rb
file, i.e. the my-project
directory.)
tool "list-tests" do
def run
Dir.chdir context_directory do
puts Dir.glob("test/**/*.rb").join("\n")
end
end
end
Note the context directory is different from __dir__
. It is not necessarily
the directory containing the file being executed, but the directory containing
the entire toys directory structure. So if your tool definition is inside a
.toys
directory, it will still work:
my-project/ <-- context_directory still points here
|
+- .toys/
| |
| +- list-tests.rb <-- tool defined here
|
+- lib/
|
+- test/
|
etc...
This technique is particularly useful for build tools. Indeed, all the build tools described in the section on Toys as a Rake Replacement automatically move into the context directory when they execute.
Changing the context directory
It is even possible to modify the context directory, causing tools that use the context directory (such as the standard build tools) to run in a different directory. Here is an example:
Suppose you have a repository with multiple gems, each in its own directory:
my-repo/
|
+- .toys.rb <-- all project tools defined here
|
+- gem1/
| |
| +- lib/
| |
| +- test/
|
+- gem2/
| |
| +- lib/
| |
| +- test/
|
etc...
Assuming all the gems use the same set of build tools, it is possible to define
those tools once in a single .toys.rb
file and have it run in a particular
gem directory depending on your current location. For example, you can cd into
gem1
or even gem1/lib
to have the tools run on gem1
. Because the standard
build tools execute within the context directory, you can accomplish this by
setting the context directory to the gem directory corresponding to the current
location. That is, if the working directory is my-repo/gem1/lib
, set the
context directory to my-repo/gem1
. Here's what that could look like:
# .toys.rb content
require "pathname"
base_dir = Pathname.new context_directory
cur_dir = Pathname.new Dir.getwd
# The gem name is the first segment of the relative path from the context
# directory to the current directory.
relative_path = cur_dir.relative_path_from(base_dir).to_s
gem_name = relative_path.split("/").first
# Only proceed if we're truly in a subdirectory
if gem_name && gem_name != "." && gem_name != ".."
# Now set the context directory to the gem directory.
set_context_directory base_dir.join(gem_name).to_s
# Define the build tools. Each of these uses the custom context directory
# set above, and thus runs for the selected gem.
:minitest
:gem_build
# etc.
end
Hidden tools
Tools whose name begins with an underscore (e.g. _foo
) are called "hidden"
tools. They can be executed the same as any other tool, but are normally
omitted from the subtool list displayed in help and usage screens. You may use
hidden tools as "internal" tools that are meant to be called only as part of
the implementation of other tools.
If you pass the --all
flag when displaying help, the help screen will include
hidden tools in the subtools list.
Toys administration using the system tools
Toys comes with a few built-in tools, including some that let you administer
Toys itself. These tools live in the system
namespace.
Getting the Toys version
You can get the current version of Toys by running:
toys system version
Note that the same output can be obtained by passing the --version
flag to
the root tool:
toys --version
Upgrading Toys
To update Toys to the latest released version, run:
toys system update
This will determine the latest version from Rubygems, and update your Toys installation if it is not already current.
Normall it asks you for confirmation before downloading. To disable interactive
confirmation, pass the --yes
flag.
A similar effect can of course be obtained by running gem install toys
.
Installing tab completion for Bash
Toys provides tab completion for the bash shell, and lets tools customize the completions for their arguments. However, you need to install the Toys completion tool into your shell. The following command sets up tab completion the current shell:
$(toys system bash-completion install)
Typically, you will want to include the above in your .bashrc
or other bash
initialization file.
By default, this associates the Toys tab completion logic with the toys
executable. If you have other names or aliases for the executable, pass them as
arguments. For example, I use t
as an alias for toys
, and I therefore
install Toys's completion logic for t
:
$(toys system bash-completion install t)
You can also remove the completion logic from the current shell:
$(toys system bash-completion remove)
$(toys system bash-completion remove t)
At this time, bash is the only shell that is supported directly. If you are
using zsh, however, you can use the bashcompinit
function to load the toys
bash completion (as well as other bash-based completions). This mostly works,
with a few caveats. Native zsh completion is on the future roadmap.
Writing your own CLI using Toys
Although Toys is not primarily designed to help you write a custom command-line
executable, you can use it in that way. Toys is factored into two gems:
toys-core, which includes all the underlying machinery for creating
command-line executables, and toys, which is really just a wrapper that
provides the toys
executable itself and its built-in commands and behavior.
To write your own command line executable based on the Toys system, just
require the toys-core gem and configure your executable the way you want.
Toys-Core is modular and lets you customize much of the behavior of a command line executable, simply by setting options or adding plugins. For example:
- Toys itself automatically adds a number of flags, such as
--verbose
and--help
, to each tool. Toys-Core lets you customize what flags (if any) are automatically added for your own command line executable. - Toys itself provides a default way to run tools that have no
run
method. It assumes such tools are namespaces, and displays the online help screen. Toys-Core lets you provide an alternate default run method for your own command line executable. - Toys itself provides several built-in tools, such as
do
, andsystem
. Toys-Core lets you write your own command line executable with its own built-in tools. - Toys itself implements a particular search path for user-provided Toys
files, and looks for specific file and directory names such as
.toys.rb
. Toys-Core lets you change the search path, the file/directory names, or disable user-provided Toys files altogether for your own command line executable. Indeed, most command line executables do not need user-customizable tools, and can ship with only built-in tools. - Toys itself has a particular way of displaying online help and reporting errors. Toys-Core lets your own command line executable customize these and many other features.
For more information, see the Toys-Core documentation.